Source: Lithium Brine Evaporation Plant in Salar de Atacama Salt Flats, Chile. Google Earth & Maxar Technologies CNES/Airbus, 8 Aug. 2020, https://earth.google.com/web/@-23.64844051,-68.31581432,2300.54651326a,16654.63819913d,35y,-0.41354308h,0.22514393t,0r.
By Leo Strand
The Anthropocene is the idea of a geological epoch, directly caused by human shaping of environments and Earth’s many landscapes – lithium brine pools are a prime example of this. This proposed era centers around the observation of changes to various Earth systems as a result of human actions. Climate change, microplastic pollution, loss of biodiversity, and more are key characteristics of this epoch that will be evident for possibly millennia to come. However, while the Anthropocene started as a purely geological term, it cannot be overstated the social and historical significance of how these events and aspected occurred. The majority of any marker of the era came about through racist and exploitative methods that resulted in the imperiling of the livelihoods of one group of people, to benefit and provide profit to another. This paper will go over the tangible, environmental disruptions as well as the social and historical significance of systematic racism, in the current production of lithium. The Salar de Atacama salt flats and lithium production complexes that exist there, are clear examples of the Anthropocene.
Lithium is a naturally occurring metal that has found recent popularity in its ability to efficiently store electricity in the form of lithium-ion batteries. These batteries are essential to power everything from Bluetooth earbuds to electric semi-trucks, it is easy to see the role they are expected to play in the electronics and transportation industries. One of the largest lithium deposits in the world is located in the “Lithium Triangle”, which accounts for more than half of the World’s supply of lithium (O’Brien, 2016). This area encompasses the meeting points of Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile; it is home to the ancestral lands of 6 tribes of indigenous peoples. In these areas, lithium is naturally occurring and exists in brine aquifers underneath salt flats. To be produced, the aquifers that hold brine (that is a mixture of water, salt, lithium, and other minerals) are drilled into. Next, it is pumped from the ground into square-shaped, shallow pools to start the evaporation process (Morse, 2020). The sun evaporates away the water, leaving the concentration of minerals behind (the different colors in the pools are because they are in different stages of the process). Finally, mechanical and chemical processing is used to get the purest form of lithium possible. These processes are incredibly intensive on the land, using vast amounts of land and freshwater. With the immense increase in demand for lithium, the supply has needed to skyrocket to match. Because of this, there has been a land rush to get access to the vast lithium resources in the Lithium Triangle, this scramble has been compared to past rushes to claim natural resources during a boom, with lithium being tagged as “white gold” or “white oil” Frankel, Whoriskey, 2016). Furthermore, this demand is only expected to increase as electric vehicles and the need for batteries increases, “Global lithium production has already doubled in just a few years. Now it needs to do it again. And again. And again…” (Domonoske, 2022). This extraction and production of lithium is not going away and will only increase as the capitalist market demand for electronics rises.
This form of lithium production has many disastrous consequences on the environment. First off, the evaporation processes require millions of gallons of fresh water to work effectively. For example, one ton of lithium roughly takes about 500,000 gallons of water to produce (Frankel, Whoriskey, 2016). One lithium plant in Argentina pumps more than 170,000 gallons per hour to fill the evaporation pools (Pearce, 2022). Wetlands, rivers, and aquifers are all being depleted of their water resources to service these plants. These wetlands specifically showcase the threat that lithium production presents to vulnerable species, “Of the 53 animal species living on the wetland, 17 are considered endangered in Chile” (Greenfield, 2022). Included in these endangered species are chinchillas, flamingos (who sometimes land in the lithium pools, mistaking them for bodies of water), vicuñas (a relative to alpacas), plants, and more. Also, these facilities take up huge amounts of land, increasing their environmental impact scope. Lithium production’s land and water use have a directly negative impact on the surrounding habitats and organisms, potentially leading to extinction and loss of biodiversity.
Not only do the production techniques affect the biotic features of the environment, but also the abiotic factors. Particularly, the water table and cycle in these areas. The extraction affects a much wider area than the facilities themselves do and it “lowers water tables – [with] the potential to dry up the lakes, wetlands, springs, and rivers” (Pearce, 2022). This is a long-lasting effect and removes vast amounts of water from the cyclical nature of the environment. Another abiotic effect is the potential for pollutants to leach into the water and soil (Dapcevich, 2022). This potential leaking of materials could endanger all living inhabitants of the area for generations to come. As the demand for lithium continues to expand, the results of lithium extraction on the environment will become even more significant.
An additional aspect of the idea of an Anthropocene is the socioeconomic role of race, capitalism, and colonialism alongside the local environmental impacts. In areas such as the Lithium Triangle, the indigenous people are often cast aside by the government and industry in the pursuit of profit from large, international corporations. “They are taking everything away from us,” said an indigenous resident of the area (Frankel, Whoriskey, 2016). The native people are at an immediate disadvantage to the extensive influence of lithium mining companies. Slow violence is practiced through desertification against a great number of people to systematically and reliably remove all livability of an area, so then an area can be utilized further to benefit lithium production (Greenfield 2022). The areas that are depleted of water, are made wastelands and are largely inhabitable. In many cases, bottled water must be imported to support the communities that had previously been able to sustain themselves off the land.
Native voices are not heard, the economic gain bought in from the metal’s exportation has a louder voice than the people do. These examples show the processes of capitalism to constantly sabotage the people and environments it exists in, to strive for progress and innovation. In this specific example, it is especially ironic. The boom in lithium is fueled by the driving market forces behind electric vehicle production, a response to climate change. So, the response to a worldwide, human-caused problem is answered by localizing it to an area with historically minority groups to then practice extractivism to provide a peace-of-mind solution for the wealthiest. This further proves the unequal and unjustness of the ethics of lithium mining and resource acquisitions. The people whose ancestral land is being exploited and taken away, will never see the benefits that come from technology using lithium: “We suffer from the contamination, and the green energy goes to the Global North. But at whose cost?” (Greenfield, 2022). The people of indigenous people are punished for just existing on land that suddenly is of interest to outside investors whose only goal and interest is to exploit the land and resources to make as much money as possible.
This is capitalism. Capitalism, as an economic function, is a key reason why this occurs and to how this extent happens. The countries that are in the Lithium Triangle, for example, are almost forced to bend to the lithium companies’ will, as they bring in tremendous amounts of money to help their economies. While it could be argued that this fairly new industry can offer jobs for the displaced, however, this is not the case. Economic stimulation is happening for the countries as a whole from these mining projects, but very little is getting to the communities most affected (Frankel, Whoriskey, 2016). Furthermore, the companies practice unfair and dishonest practices when negotiating for land and resource rights. For example, one company, Exar, pays 6 local communities less than $200,000 per year to be able to use their land. Even though Exar is estimated at bringing in $250,000,000 per year, this is a huge disparity and shows how big business takes advantage of the native people for their own gain.
Lithium brine pools and the impacts from its processes clearly show and define the many considerations of the Anthropocene. The mining practices inflict huge ecological consequences on the local environment and communities. The companies that mine lithium show the self-sabotaging nature of capitalism and its ability to exploit people to maximize profits. Lastly, it shows the great range and disparity in different parties’ effects on the climate and the Anthropocene. The businesses are attempting to capitalize on new, green technology that is intended only to be affordable for the richest countries to then the natives who are made to suffer for that innovation.
References:
Balch, Oliver. “The Curse of ‘White Oil’: Electric Vehicles’ Dirty Secret.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 8 Dec. 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/dec/08/the-curse-of-white-oil-electric-vehicles-dirty-secret-lithium.
Dapcevich, Madison. “Does Viral Photo Show a ‘Toxic’ Lithium Extraction Field?” Snopes, Snopes.com, 16 Aug. 2022, https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/photo-lithium-extraction-mines/.
Domonoske, Camila. “High Demand and Prices for Lithium Send Mines into Overdrive.” National Public Radio, NPR, 23 Nov. 2022, https://www.npr.org/2022/11/23/1135952359/lithium-mines-batteries-electric-vehicles-climate-change-carbon.
Frankel, Todd, and Peter Whoriskey. “Companies Are Making Billions in Lithium Mining. but These Indigenous People Are Being Left out.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 19 Dec. 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/tossed-aside-in-the-lithium-rush/.
Garside, M. “Global Lithium Production 2022.” Statista, 21 Mar. 2023, https://www.statista.com/statistics/606684/world-production-of-lithium/.
Greenfield, Nicole. “Lithium Mining Is Leaving Chile’s Indigenous Communities High and Dry (Literally).” NDRC, National Resource Defense Council, 26 Apr. 2022, https://www.nrdc.org/stories/lithium-mining-leaving-chiles-indigenous-communities-high-and-dry-literally.
MacDonald, Scott B. “The Geopolitics of South America’s Lithium Triangle.” Global Americans, 19 Jan. 2023, https://theglobalamericans.org/2023/01/the-geopolitics-of-south-americas-lithium-triangle/#:~:text=The%20lithium%20boom%20is%20good,China%2C%20Brazil%2C%20and%20Portugal.
Miller, Daegan. “How Environmentally Responsible Is Lithium Brine Mining? It Depends on How Old the Water Is.” UMass Amherst, 12 July 2022, https://www.umass.edu/news/article/how-environmentally-responsible-lithium-brine-mining-it-depends-how-old-water.
Moore, Patrick, and Javier Lewkowicz . “Can Lithium Be Produced with a Lower Environmental Impact?” Dialogo Chino, 29 Sept. 2022, https://dialogochino.net/en/extractive-industries/58865-can-lithium-be-produced-with-lower-environmental-impact-latin-america/.
O’Brien, Rosalba. “How South America’s Lithium Triangle Is Gearing up to Feed Our Battery Addiction.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 23 Mar. 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/23/battery-lithium-south-america-chile-argentina-bolivia.
Pearce, Fred. “Why the Rush to Mine Lithium Could Dry up the High Andes.” Yale Environment 360, Yale School of the Environment, 19 Sept. 2022, https://e360.yale.edu/features/lithium-mining-water-andes-argentina#:~:text=The%20extraction%20lowers%20water%20tables,underground%20water%20reaches%20the%20surface.
Anthropocene in Objects 